National Identity and the Other: Lithuania
National Identity
National identity refers to a sense of belonging that connects individuals to a larger political and cultural community. It’s the shared beliefs, traditions, language, symbols, and historical experiences that allow people to recognize one another with things they have in common. Writers have emphasized that national identity is not only about how a group understands itself, but also how it separates itself from others. Triandafyllidou (1998) argues that these differences can be looked at as external “Others” like rival nations, or internal “Others,” like minority groups or communities within the nation. In both cases, the nation defines itself by marking who counts as part of the community and who falls outside of it.
Debates about national identity, especially in Europe, often bring up ethnic and civic nationalism. Ethnic nationalism defines membership through shared ancestry, blood, or ethnicity, implying that one must be born into the nation. Egan (2018) notes that this type of nationalism is historically rooted but is also pretty flawed and unrealistic because human migration and cultural mixing have always been a part of history. In contrast, civic nationalism defines the nation through shared values, political ideals and citizenship rather than lineage. Egan (2018) talked about countries such as Canada, Australia and the United States as examples where people from diverse backgrounds are unified through civic nationalism rather than ethnic.
History
One of the most important foundations of Lithuanian national identity is history, particularly the legacy of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (GDL). In the 13th century, Lithuanian tribes united in response to external threats, mainly German expansion, under the leadership of Mindaugas. The GDL grew into one of the largest and most powerful states in Europe between the 14th and 16th centuries, making up a multiethnic and multireligious territory (Britannica Editors, 2025). This time is significant when looking at Lithuanian history because it symbolizes their political strength, independence and statehood.
The union with Poland and later domination by Russia challenged Lithuanian sovereignty. Andrijauskas (2008) explains that “the internal homogenization of the GDL state organism began to appear in the second half of the fifteenth century…” but the growing power of Poland and Moscow meant “...less time remained for ideas of a specific GDL multiethnic and multireligious identity to become established” (p. 165). External forces ultimately destroyed Lithuania’s statehood before this identity could be solidified.
Despite the growing Soviet presence, some elements of Lithuanian national identity were taking shape. Andrijauskas (2008) also explained that “…the most important thing is that the rudiments of an integrated western-style estate society had already appeared in this ethnically variegated world by the late fifteenth century…” which contributed to more unity among Lithuanian and Belarusian elite groups, and reinforced their commitment to protecting Lithuanian statehood (p. 167). These historical experiences of statehood, union and resistance continued to develop Lithuanian national identity, especially resilience.
Language
Language is one of the strongest parts of Lithuanian national identity. Lithuanian is one of the oldest living Indo-European languages and one of only two surviving Baltic languages. The Lithuanian language separated from Latvian starting around 800 CE, and went through “...numerous phases—such as the earliest form, Old Lithuanian—before becoming its own complete language by the sixteenth century” (Ruth, 2022). This continuity makes the language an important symbol of national identity, not just because it is old, but because it reflects resilience of Lithuanian culture and shared memories that have been maintained despite numerous efforts to suppress it.
Language became especially significant during Russian rule in the nineteenth century. After failed uprisings, Russian authorities attempted to suppress Lithuanian identity by targeting the language as a whole. As Ruth (2022) describes, “Russia closed Lithuanian schools, which taught children the Lithuanian language, and outlawed the use of the Latin alphabet.” Lithuanians were forced to write in the Cyrillic alphabet so that they would adopt Russian cultural norms and move away from their own language and identity.
Rather than eliminating Lithuanian identity, these policies increased resistance. “Over the next 40 years, Lithuanians resisted this oppression in many ways, including finding loopholes in the law, starting secret schools, and smuggling books across the country’s border” (Williams, 2021, p. 137). By the 1880s, this resistance evolved into the Lithuanian National Awakening. Williams explains that when Russia restricted communication, “they were able to unify under a common name with a common adversary and a common purpose” (Williams, 2021, p. 141). Following this, language became a main symbol of Lithuanian identity and resistance. After independence in 1918, Lithuanian returned to mainstream society and was declared the official state language in 1930. Later, its recognition as an official language of the European Union in 2004 further showed its political and cultural significance.
Religion
Religion plays a significant role in Lithuania’s national identity. Lithuania was the last pagan state in Europe to officially convert to Christianity in 1387. “Even two hundred years after the baptism of Mindaugas, a significant part of the Lithuanian population still adhered to pagan practices” (Trinkauskaitė, 2024), showing that traditional beliefs persisted long after conversion. Following baptism and alliance with Poland, Lithuania became integrated into the Western Christian world. As Williams (2021) explains, “Due to Lithuania’s baptism and alliance with Poland, the ethnic Lithuanian and western Belarusian inhabitants were absorbed into the Christian Western world.” This integration had major political and cultural effects, as Catholicism became a major part of legal structures, education and public life, which shaped Lithuanian political and cultural identity.
Catholicism became particularly important during periods of foreign occupation, serving as a space where Lithuanian language and traditions could be preserved. Trinkauskaitė (2024) notes that Catholicism makes “legal definitions of ‘traditional’ religions, state subsidies, education and public recognition of religious practices,” showing its influence on Lithuanian society. Under Russian and Soviet rule, Catholicism gained more national significance as it was a protected space for Lithuanian memory and culture to be preserved when other forms of national expression were restricted. Through these roles, religion contributed to Lithuania’s national identity despite external pressures.
Othering
Using Triandafyllidou’s terminology, Lithuanian national identity has been shaped through both external and internal Othering. Externally, Russia is often used as a defining “Other.” Policies like the book ban made Lithuanian culture seem inferior, and it reinforced unity between Lithuanians through shared resistance. Seeing Russia as a threatening external “Other” helped Lithuania unite and create a collective national identity. Internally, certain groups have also been Othered such as in post-Soviet Lithuania, Evangelical Protestant communities were sometimes viewed as cultural or religious aliens. People who rejected Catholic rituals or abstained from alcohol could have been interpreted as straying from the dominant norms in the nation, marking these groups as internal “Others” that were influenced by Western ideals.
To summarize what I found in my research, Lithuania’s national identity is shaped by history, language and religion. An example of an external Other is Russia, and internally, Evangelical Protestant communities were Othered.
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References
Andrijauskas, A. (2008). III. THE EUROPEAN UNION, THE PAST AND THE PRESENT: THE CULTURAL-HISTORICAL MEMORY OF THE GRAND DUCHY OF LITHUANIA AS AN EXPRESSION OF NATIONAL IDENTITY AND AS A CULTURAL CAPITAL FACILITATING INTEGRATION INTO THE EUROPEAN UNION. EBSCO, 1(2), 160–171. https://doi.org/10.3846/2029-0187.2008.1.160-171
Britannica Editors. (2025, March 25). Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Britannica. Retrieved February 3, 2026, from https://www.britannica.com/place/grand-duchy-of-Lithuania
Egan, J. (2018, February 10). Civic vs Ethnic Nationalism And Hosting Eurovision For The First Time. ESC Insight. Retrieved February 3, 2026, from https://escinsight.com/2018/02/12/civic-ethnic-nationalism-eurovision-song-contest-portugal-advice/
Lankauskas, G. (2002). On “Modern” Christians, Consumption, and the Value of National Identity in Post-Soviet Lithuania. EBSCO, 62(3), 320–344. https://doi.org/10.1080/0014184022000031
Ruth, M. (2022). Lithuanian Language. EBSCO. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/language-and-linguistics/lithuanian-language#research-starter-title
Stranga, A. (2026, January 29). History of Lithuania. Britannica. Retrieved February 3, 2026, from https://www.britannica.com/place/Lithuania/History
Triandafyllidou, A. (1998). National identity and the `other.’. EBSCO, 21(4), 593–612. https://doi.org/10.1080/014198798329784
Trinkauskaitė, E. (2024). Christian Nationalism in the Lithuanian Context. CrossCurrents, 74(4), 483–500. https://muse.jhu.edu/article/963638
Williams, E. (2021). Lithuanian Awakening: How a book ban rebirthed a national identity. EBSCO, 55(1), 137–152. https://research.ebsco.com/c/fyoty5/search/details/j2wmwi2xff/details?db=a9h&limiters=RV%3AY&q=lithuania+AND+national+identity&searchMode=all
